African American Skin Color Stratification

I just found this essay (literature review) I wrote last fall for my sociology class.
It's a lot of information. But it does say a lot about the African American community...

“Skin-color bias (colorism) in the United States originates from a history of slavery and racial oppression” (Drake and Cayton 1945:495-506; Myrdal 1944; Russell, Wilson, and Hall 1992). A common yet rarely talked about topic, African American skin color stratification, is an issue that affects the African American community as a whole. “Color preference is a cousin of racial prejudice, and like prejudice it is closely linked with the urge to obtain and maintain power over others.” (Hochschild and Weaver 2007:4). The subject of “colorism” (skin color bias), and Eurocentric images during the times where slavery was prevalent in the United states has molded the African American community to think those of lighter skin are better while those of darker skin are seen as less than. Several studies have proven that those with a lighter skin complexion are perceived to be more beautiful, more educated, and overall have a higher social status. This present paper will investigate the truth behind these studies and what influences have shaped the “lighter is better” mentality that is so noticeably portrayed in African Americans today. The basis of most of the studies done rely on Cross (1971,1978,1995), in his five-stage nigrescence model, described the process of development for individuals of African descent as Pre-Encounter, Encounter, Immersion/ Emersion, Internalization, and Commitment. The Pre-Encounter stage is characterized by self-devaluation and an overriding preference for European American values and behaviors; the Encounter stage by a budding awareness of self as African American or Black; the Immersion/Emersion stage by rejection of European American and idealization of African American cultures, respectively; and the Internalization stage by self-acceptance of personal identity. The final stage, Commitment, represents an awareness-based plan of behavior.

In a study conducted by Nassar-McMillan, McFall-Roberts, Flowers, & Garrett (2006), the question was posed if young African American women perceived those with a lighter complexion were seen as more favorable. A group of 60 young women ages 17-19 who were all college freshmen were given a survey to calculate their opinion of their skin color, and shown pictures that represented those of each skin color group. The hypotheses of the study were that (a) African American young women's self-perception of skin color would be positively correlated with their preference for altering or changing skin color and (b) among the African American female adolescent study participants, light-complexioned peers would be rated more favorably than would dark-complexioned peers. The majority of the group rated their skin color as “medium brown” (62.9%), while 24.2% were rated as “light”, 8.1% “dark”, 1.7% “very light”, and none as “very dark”.

The results showed the hypotheses to be somewhat disproven, but in all a telltale sign that “colorism” indeed exists. The results demonstrated that 3.2% of the group would become darker, while 6.5% would change to a lighter skin color. Although the majority of the group, when questioned, stated that they like their current skin color and would not change it, still 6.5% said they would change their skin color lighter. These results made it so it was not statistically proven that those of a lighter complexion are seen as more favorable, but more results keyed into the influence colorism has on those in adolescence. The study group was shown pictures of the peers representing the skin color groups (from very light, light, medium, and dark) who all were compared and assessed to have the same facial attributes. The results illustrated the “medium brown peer [was] seen in the least favorable light… given that 62.9% of participants self identified as being medium brown” (Nassar-McMillan, McFall-Roberts, Flowers, & Garrett 2006:11). In addition, within the results of the peer picture presentation, many stereotypes came into play. “The light peer was labeled as being ‘sneaky’, whereas the dark peer was labeled as being ‘greasy’” (Nassar-McMillan, McFall-Roberts, Flowers, & Garrett 2006:11). The words “sneaky” and “greasy” are both seen as derogatory among the African American community, and show even with a younger population surveyed, the stereotypes from the colonial times have played a role in the perception of identity among young women. The peers also stated that the light young woman shown would be most likely to be asked out (76%), proving an unfavorable response to the darker young woman finding a mate. In a reflection of the African American population as a whole, “this study [did] not indicate that people are where they need to be or hope to be in the battle to eradicate discrimination based on skin color” (Nassar-McMillan, McFall-Roberts, Flowers, & Garrett 2006:11). The results of this study demonstrated the preference of those with a lighter complexion and therefore the assumption that they are more popular.

The idea of light skin giving an individual an advantage to those of darker complexions was explored in a study conducted by Hunter (2002). African American women were compared in relation to their skin color (from 1-5; 1 meaning darkest, 5 meaning lightness) and their education, income, choice of husband, and overall status. The results adduced that “skin color is a statistically significant predictor of education” (Hunter 2002:9). Showing that for every number higher on the scale, the education of the individual increased by one-third of a year, concluding that the lightest individual had almost two years more education than one of the darkest complexion. On the question of if skin complexion made a difference with a person’s income, the results proved a consequence of a woman with a “light brown” complexion overall earned more than $2,600 more per year than a woman with a similar background who is described as “very dark brown”. How is it possible to explain why an individual with lighter skin can not only receive more education than a person with darker skin, but also attain a higher amount of income in a year? The results can be seen as circumstantial, but when all background information is independent and similar, these results hold a very hard truth. The final results revealed that “when a very dark brown woman and a very light brown woman who are similar in background characteristics marry, the very light brown woman will likely marry a man with an entire year more education than the very dark brown woman” (Hunter 2002:14). A disturbing, yet ambivalent issue arises within this study, “colorism” plays a big role in African American women’s perception of identity, and the idea portrayed to those outside of the African American race. Because of the assignment of certain values towards “whiteness” and “blackness”, those seen with a darker complexion are discriminated against.

According to Hochschild and Weaver (2007), seven studies have been done since 1960 saying the lightness or darkness of ones skins affects an individual’s social status. In their article, they concluded skin color is unrelated to racial identity, saying “for most blacks, racial identity functions as a background condition – an unstated context or unquestioned assumption (Hochschild and Weaver 2007:14); whether a person is of light complexion or dark complexion, the still have a connection with their heritage. In addition, in comparison with racial prejudice, and color preference the “tendency to perceive or behave toward members of a racial category based on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone”(Maddox and Gray 2002:250) is a prevalent issue between those in the African American race. “It is clear that to at least some African American, skin color discrimination is just as bitter as, perhaps even more painful than, racism – if only because it can come from people inside as well as outside their own group and because it can be highly personalized and intimate” (Hochschild and Weaver 2007:19).

Mark E. Hill (2002) also tackled the issue at hand using the National Survey of Black Americans (NSBA) to assess whether African Americans of the “baby boom” era and those younger have the same view of “colorism”. In his summary, it is noted that “whiteness” is seen as civilized, virtuous, and beautiful, whereas blackness is seen as lowly, sinful, and ugly. And because of the definition of “whiteness” put upon the African American community by those of European decent, “African American groups established color bars, such as the “brown bag test,” to restrict admittance to fraternities, churches, and social clubs: persons darker than a brown paper bag were denied entrance” (Russell et al. 1992). In the times of slavery “mulatos”, often children the their white owners or other relatives received special advantages than those of darker complexions. In the American community, it is shown that African American females are more affected than African American males when it comes to “issues of skin color, facial features, and hair” (Neal and Wilson 1989:328). In this article, it is stated that in the NSBA during the “black power movement”, while improvement was shown among individuals at that time because of “black is beautiful”, the idea of black beauty has reverted in more recent times. When it comes down to gender and beauty, African American “men hold the strongest color biases regarding notion of feminine beauty” (e.g., Allen et all 2000; Harvey 1995). This is to say that in today’s society, men possess most of the control on what is considered beauty. So if a bias is presented of women with “lighter skin” are “better”, it is unconsciously embedded into an African American woman’s mind that in order to be beautiful she must have a light complexion, and if she does not have a light complexion, hate is put towards any woman who does have that light complexion. Finally, Hill (2002:13) states, “if Eurocentric standards of beauty continue to be applied to persons of African decent, dark-skinned African American are likely to suffer substantial social disadvantages both outside and within the black community.”

Overall, with all results and articles synthesized together, the conclusion can be made that skin color is indeed an undeniably big issue in the African American community. The “lighter is better” philosophy engrained in the minds of African Americans has outshined the “black is beautiful” movement that once encouraged them to be happy with who they are and what skin complexion they are. This can be attributed to those outside of the race contributing to the “whiteness” and “blackness” perception, where those who are lighter are more accepted because they are seen as closer to “whiteness”, virtuousness, and loyalty. Further studies should explore an even more depth discussion of where the colorism and discrimination begins, whether it is internally engrained into the mentality of the women, or if other outside sources attribute to the color bias among African American young women and the African American community as a whole.